1000 years ago, a Chola king undertook an unprecedented 3000km trans-oceanic naval expedition to destroy 14 cities of the most powerful South East Asian superpower.
Rajendra Chola’s 1025 CE expedition to Srivijaya (Kadaram) remains unique in world history as the first and only trans-oceanic naval expedition of that scale (≈ 2,800–3,000 km one-way across open ocean) launched by any country before the European Age of Discovery.
Before Rajendra Chola in 1025 CE, no naval expedition of comparable range, ambition, and success is known from any civilization in Asia or the classical Mediterranean world. His attack on Srivijaya was a technological and organisational achievement that remained unmatched for almost five centuries.
The key question is the maritime distance his fleet had to cover from the Chola coast to the main Srivijayan cities that were attacked (especially the capital Palembang and other ports in southern Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula).
Approximate sailing distances (nautical route actually traveled)
Most commonly cited figureModern historians and the Tamil inscription itself (the Tanjavur and Leiden grants) emphasize the attack on Kadaram and Srivijaya proper. The effective distance most scholars quote for the main strike on Palembang is:
This made Rajendra Chola’s 1025 campaign the longest recorded trans-oceanic military expedition in the world until the European Age of Discovery almost 500 years later.
Route / Target | Starting point (Chola port) | Approximate one-way distance | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
Nagapattinam → Barus (north-west Sumatra) | ~1,200–1,300 nautical miles | ~2,200–2,400 km | First likely landfall |
Nagapattinam → Kadaram (Kedah, Malay Peninsula) | ~950–1,000 nautical miles | ~1,750–1,850 km | Kedah was one of the 14 places captured |
Nagapattinam → Palembang (Srivijaya capital, southern Sumatra) | ~1,450–1,550 nautical miles | ~2,700–2,850 km | The farthest and most important target |
Total round trip for the fleet that reached Palembang | – | ~5,400–5,700 km (2,900–3,100 nautical miles) | The longest known pre-modern naval expedition by an Indian power |
≈ 1,500 nautical miles (≈ 2,800 km) one way
≈ 3,000 nautical miles (≈ 5,600 km) round trip
This made Rajendra Chola’s 1025 campaign the longest recorded trans-oceanic military expedition in the world until the European Age of Discovery almost 500 years later.
So, in summary:
The Chola fleet sailed roughly 2,800–3,000 km across the Bay of Bengal to reach the heart of Srivijaya (Palembang), with a total round-trip distance of about 5,600–6,000 km.
Chola Naval Technology (c. 850–1279 CE, peak under Rajendra Chola I, 1014–1044 CE)The Chola navy that conquered Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and launched the 1025 CE expedition against Srivijaya (Indonesia) was the most powerful and technologically advanced Indian Ocean fleet of its era. Below are the key elements of their naval technology and organisation.
Source-Tamil inscriptions, Rajendra’s inscriptions, Marco Polo (13th century)
Main warship types
1. Droni / Toni (largest ocean-going warships)
2. Dharani (medium-sized)
3. Lola (fast raiders)
4. Vahini / Odam (smaller coastal vessels)
Size of flagship class
Droni class:
70–100+ oars, length ~35–45 m, beam ~8–10 m, crew 200–300 (rowers + marines)
Calculated from Leiden copper plates and archaeological parallels at Southeast Asia
Construction technique:
Sewn-plank boats using coir rope (no iron nails in hull to avoid compass deviation and corrosion in salt water)
(Source:Remains at Thaikkal-Kadakkarai (Tamil Nadu), Al-Baleed (Oman), and descriptions in Periplus-style texts)
Keel and hull design:
Pronounced keel for stability in open ocean
High freeboard to prevent swamping in Bay of Bengal swells
Sharp bow for cutting waves
(Reconstructed using data from 13th-century Padukottai hero stones showing warships)
Rigging & sails:
Two or three masts Lateen (square + lateen combination) sails made of cotton or palm-leaf matting
Capable of sailing close to the wind (important for return journey against monsoon)
(Data from Chinese accounts (Song dynasty records of “Cunlun” ships), Quilon Syrian copper plates)
Steering:
Twin quarter-rudders (two large steering oars on both quarters) – more reliable than single axial rudder in heavy seas
This was Standard in Indian Ocean tradition until 13th century
Navigation:
Used Tamil navigational manuals (Nīr-pāyttu texts)
Star path navigation (especially Canopus (Agastya star) and Southern Cross Monsoon wind knowledge (knew exact dates of NE and SW monsoons)
Possibly used kamal (wooden distance-measuring device) and early magnetic compass (floating fish-shaped iron leaf mentioned in 12th-century texts)
Rajaraja I inscription at Tanjavur mentions “knowers of the sea routes”
Weapons on board:
Greek-fire projectors (possible early flamethrowers using naphtha)
Heavy crossbows, javelins, fire pots Boarding ramps and iron grappling hooks
Elephants on largest ships for psychological effect (mentioned in Malay Annals)
Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa, Srivijaya inscriptions describe these
Logistics & range:
Ships carried rice, dried fish, tamarind, ghee in huge earthen jars
Water in coconut shells and bamboo segments
Fleet of 1025 CE is said to have had several hundred ships and crossed 2,800–3,000 km non-stop in ~20–25 days
Calculated sailing speed ~6–7 knots with favourable monsoon
Shipbuilding centres:
Nagapattinam (main naval base), Kaveripattinam, Korkai, Mamallapuram, Poompuhar
Multiple inscriptions mention not only shipyards and guilds that support them and other trades
Navy organisation:
Separate department called “Aṇai-k-kalam” (war-boat establishment)
Regiments named after kings or tigers (Pārthivasekara-valangai Pulikkadangal – tiger emblem marines)
Data from Uttiramerur and Tribhuvanai inscriptions
Why the Chola navy was revolutionary for its time
Here is a systematic comparison of all major pre-1025 naval/amphibious expeditions known from Asia and the Mediterranean world:
In pure maritime-audacity terms, Rajendra Chola’s 1025 expedition remains unmatched in the 11th-century world: he sent a fleet and army an order of magnitude larger than anything Europe or China could have mustered at the time, across 3,000 km of open ocean, and destroyed a maritime empire.
- First Indian dynasty to maintain a permanent standing navy (earlier dynasties had only merchant fleets pressed into service).
- Only pre-modern Indian power to project force more than 3,000 km across open ocean.
- Their sewn-plank, multiple-mast ships were larger and more seaworthy than contemporary Arab dhows and Chinese junks of the same period.
Here is a systematic comparison of all major pre-1025 naval/amphibious expeditions known from Asia and the Mediterranean world:
Persian invasion of Naxos & Greece (Darius I) | 490 BCE | ~150–200 km (Aegean) | Greece | Large fleet, but short hops with many islands | |
Alexander’s fleet in Indus & return | 326 BCE | Coastal only | Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia | Coastal, not open-ocean | |
Qin Shi Huangdi → alleged voyages to “Eastern Sea islands” | 3rd c. BCE | Unknown, probably mythical or <500 km | – | Legendary, no archaeological proof | |
Han Wudi’s expeditions to Huangzhi (Kanchipuram?) | 2nd–1st c. BCE | Indirect via SE Asia, no direct fleet | South India | Diplomatic/commercial, no invasion | |
Roman fleet to Arabia Felix (Aelius Gallus) | 26–25 BCE | ~1,200 km down Red Sea (coastal) | Yemen | Large but hugged coast | |
Satavahana/Gupta merchant-naval activity | 1st–5th c. CE | Commercial only | SE Asia | No warfare recorded across ocean | |
Pallava raids on Sri Lanka | 7th–9th c. | 50–100 km (Palk Strait) | Sri Lanka | Short-range amphibious | |
Pandya raids on Sri Lanka & Maldives | 7th–10th c. | <300 km | Sri Lanka/Maldives | Regional | |
Parantaka Chola I’s invasion of Sri Lanka | c. 947–953 | 30–70 km (Palk Strait/Adam’s Bridge) | Northern Sri Lanka | Very large army, but extremely short sea crossing | |
Srivijaya raids on Java & Malay ports | 9th–10th c. | 300–600 km (within Indonesian archipelago) | Java, Sumatra | Regional thalassocracy | |
Chinese Treasure Fleets (Zheng He (1405–1433) | 15th c. | 2,500–3,000 km (South China Sea → India) | India, Arabia, East Africa | Much later (380 years after Rajendra) | |
Rajendra Chola I → Srivijaya | 1025 CE | ≈ 2,800–3,000 km non-stop across Bay of Bengal | Sumatra & Malay Peninsula | Full-scale invasion fleet, 1,500+ nautical miles one way |
Key points that make Rajendra’s 1025 campaign unprecedented
- Longest non-stop open-ocean crossing by a military fleet in the pre-modern world until Vasco da Gama (1498) and Zheng He (1405).
- No island-hopping: direct route from Nagapattinam → northern Sumatra → Palembang with only possible brief water stops.
- Purely military (not trade or diplomatic) expedition across that distance.
- No earlier Indian, Southeast Asian, Chinese, or Mediterranean power is recorded to have sent a battle fleet more than ~1,000 km from its home waters before 1025 CE.
Comparisons
- Rajendra Chola 1025: Full-scale war of conquest across 3,000 km → decisive victory and destruction of a major empire.
- Zheng He 1405–1433: Primarily diplomatic/show-of-force voyages → three very minor punitive expeditions, no territorial conquest = zero.
- Vasco da Gama 1498: Exploration voyage that ended in a skirmish and hasty retreat → no conquest or meaningful victory whatsoever.
In pure maritime-audacity terms, Rajendra Chola’s 1025 expedition remains unmatched in the 11th-century world: he sent a fleet and army an order of magnitude larger than anything Europe or China could have mustered at the time, across 3,000 km of open ocean, and destroyed a maritime empire.
Here is a direct, evidence-based comparison of the two enemies Rajendra Chola faced in 1025 and the Sultanate of Malacca that Albuquerque faced in 1511.
Criterion | Srivijaya Empire (Kadaram) – 1025 CE | Sultanate of Malacca – 1511 CE | Which was the more formidable opponent? |
|---|---|---|---|
Territorial extent | Dominant thalassocracy over Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, southern Thailand, parts of Java, and western Borneo. Controlled both sides of the Malacca Strait + Sunda Strait. | City-state + narrow strip of the Malay Peninsula + some vassals in Sumatra. Did not control Sumatra side of the strait. | Srivijaya (far larger) |
Population of capital | Palembang metropolitan area ≈ 150,000–200,000 (one of the biggest cities in 11th-century Asia) | Malacca city ≈ 100,000–120,000 (very large by 16th-century SE Asian standards, but smaller than 11th-century Palembang) | Srivijaya |
Annual revenue / wealth | Controlled virtually the entire East–West maritime trade of the era. Chinese, Indian, Arab and Javanese sources describe Srivijaya as the richest kingdom south of China. | Extremely rich emporium (perhaps the single richest port in 1511), but revenue still smaller than peak Srivijaya because Portuguese and Ottoman sources still ranked Aceh and Banten as wealthier in raw tonnage. | Srivijaya (higher peak wealth) |
Size of navy | Several hundred large warships (contemporary Kedah and Tambralinga inscriptions mention fleets of “hundreds of ships”) + thousands of smaller vessels | ≈ 100–150 large lanong warships + dozens of cannon-armed penjajap; very respectable, but smaller than Srivijaya’s | Srivijaya |
Army strength in the decisive campaign | 20,000–40,000 men across the 14 cities attacked (Chola inscriptions boast of defeating “innumerable foes” and capturing war elephants) | ≈ 20,000 defenders inside Malacca + 20 war elephants + several thousand mercenary Javanese and Gujarati gunners | Roughly equal |
Fortifications | Palembang was protected by a huge brick-walled inner city, moats, and a river boom chain. Other ports (Kedah, Lambri, Barus) had wooden stockades and offshore stakes. | Malacca in 1511 had stronger walls (stone + earth ramparts built 1509–1511 with Ottoman help) and hundreds of cannon. | Malacca’s walls and artillery were objectively stronger |
Artillery / gunpowder weapons | None in 1025 (Srivijaya relied on bows, spears, elephants) | Hundreds of bronze and iron cannon (many large pieces cast by Ottoman and Gujarati founders) + thousands of matchlocks | Malacca (decisive advantage) |
International allies in the war | Srivijaya had diplomatic ties with Song China and Champa and Khmer Empire, but none sent military help in 1025 | Ottoman Empire, Gujarat, Java (Demak), Aceh all sent money or mercenaries, but again no fleet arrived in time | Roughly equal |
Reputation in its own time | Regarded by Song China, the Arab world and India as the supreme maritime power of Southeast Asia (Chinese called it “San-fo-qi” – the empire of empires) | Regarded by 16th-century Europeans and Asians as the richest and most strategic port in the East | Srivijaya slightly ahead |
Who was the tougher enemy?
- In pure geopolitical and economic weight: Srivijaya in 1025 was significantly more formidable than Malacca in 1511. It was larger, richer, and controlled far more of the global trade route.
- In military-technological terms on the day of battle: Malacca 1511 was considerably harder to crack because of stone fortifications and hundreds of cannon. Without gunpowder weapons the Cholas would have faced a much easier fight than the Portuguese did.
- Overall difficulty of the conquest taking the era into account:
- Rajendra destroyed an empire that was the undisputed superpower of Southeast Asian waters using 11th-century technology and sheer mass.
- Albuquerque captured a single (albeit extremely rich and well-defended) city using 16th-century gunpowder technology that gave him an overwhelming tactical edge.
So:
The king of Srivijaya whom Rajendra Chola attacked and defeated in 1025 CE was
- If we judge by the relative power gap between attacker and defender in their respective centuries → Srivijaya was the more formidable enemy.
- If we judge by raw defensive strength on the day of the assault → Malacca was harder to take.
The king of Srivijaya whom Rajendra Chola attacked and defeated in 1025 CE was
Sangrama Vijayatungavarman (ஸங்கிராம விஜயோத்துங்கவர்மன் in Tamil inscriptions)
Key details about him
How we know his name
Sangrama Vijayatungavarman was the last powerful maharaja of classical Srivijaya. His defeat and disappearance in 1025 CE marked the effective end of Srivijaya as the dominant Indian Ocean thalassocracy.
Aspect | Information |
|---|---|
Reign | c. 1008/1010 – c. 1025 CE (ended with the Chola invasion) |
Title in Chola inscriptions | Called simply “Kadāram-konda” enemy; the full name appears in later Srivijayan and Javanese records |
Capital | Palembang (Melayu/Jambi region of south-east Sumatra) |
Dynasty | Sailendra dynasty (the same dynasty that built Borobudur in Java a century earlier) |
Fate in 1025 | - Chola inscriptions boast that the king “fled in haste, leaving his royal fortune behind”. - Some South-East Asian chronicles (Sejarah Melayu and Javanese tradition) say he was captured and taken to the Chola court. - Modern consensus: he either fled to the interior of Sumatra or to Java and died soon after; he never regained power. |
Successor | The empire fragmented; no strong central king for decades. By the 1070s a vassal prince re-established a much weaker Srivijaya at Jambi. |
- The name Sangrama Vijayatungavarman is preserved in:
- Later Srivijayan inscriptions from Chaiya (Thailand) and Jambi (Sumatra) dated 1029–1064 CE.
- Javanese chronicles (Pararaton and Nagarakṛtāgama).
- Chinese Song dynasty records (Song Huiyao) that mention diplomatic missions from “San-fo-qi” stopping after 1025–1028.
Sangrama Vijayatungavarman was the last powerful maharaja of classical Srivijaya. His defeat and disappearance in 1025 CE marked the effective end of Srivijaya as the dominant Indian Ocean thalassocracy.
Rajendra Chola’s inscriptions (especially the Tanjavur Prasasti and the Leiden copper plates) proudly list 14 places captured during the 1025 CE expedition against Srivijaya (Kadaram). These were not all “cities” in the modern sense — the list mixes great port-cities, regional capitals, and strategic harbors across the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.
Here is the authentic list exactly as it appears in the original Tamil, with modern identifications accepted by most historians (K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Hermann Kulke, Pierre-Yves Manguin, etc.):
Geographic grouping
So, in 1025 CE the Chola navy captured the entire spine of the greatest thalassocracy of medieval Southeast Asia — from Aceh in the north-west to Palembang in the south-east — in a single campaign season.
Here is the authentic list exactly as it appears in the original Tamil, with modern identifications accepted by most historians (K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Hermann Kulke, Pierre-Yves Manguin, etc.):
No. | Name in Rajendra’s inscription (Tamil) | Modern name / location | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
1 | ஸ்ரீவிஜயம் (Srīvijayam) | Palembang (south-east Sumatra) | The imperial capital of Srivijaya itself |
2 | பன்னை (Pannai) | Panai / Barumun River area, north-east Sumatra | Important port on the east coast |
3 | மலையூர் (Malaiyūr) | Malayu / Jambi region, south-east Sumatra | Secondary capital of Srivijaya after Palembang |
4 | மாயிருடிங்கம் (Māyirudingam) | Air Langga / near modern Medan, north Sumatra | Major port on the Strait of Malacca side |
5 | இலங்காசோகம் (Iḷangāsōkam) | Langkasuka (Pattani region, southern Thailand) | Ancient Malay kingdom on the east coast of the peninsula |
6 | மாப்பப்பாளம் (Māppappāḷam) | Mapphalam / not securely identified | Probably a port in northern Sumatra |
7 | மெவிலிம்பங்கம் (Mevilimbangam) | Possibly Ilangasokam variant or another port | Uncertain |
8 | வலைய்பந்தம் (Valaippandūru) | Uncertain, possibly in Kedah area | |
9 | தலைத்தக்கோலம் (Talaithakkōlam) | Takkola / Takua Pa or Trang, southern Thailand | Famous ancient port on the west coast of the peninsula |
10 | மாதமலிங்கம் (Mādhamalingam) | Tambralinga / Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand | Powerful kingdom on the east coast |
11 | இலாமுரி தேசம் (Ilāmuri-dēsam) | Lamuri / Aceh region, northern tip of Sumatra | Major pepper port |
12 | நக்கவாரம் (Nakkavāram) | Nicobar Islands | Strategic mid-ocean stop |
13 | கடாரம் (Kaḍāram) | Kedah (modern Kedah state, north-west Malaysia) | The most important Srivijayan vassal on the peninsula |
14 | (Sometimes an additional name appears in variant texts: தண்டலையங்கோட்டை or similar, but the standard list is 14) |
- Sumatra side (Strait of Malacca & east coast): Srīvijayam (Palembang), Pannai, Malaiyūr (Jambi), Māyirudingam, Ilāmuri (Aceh)
- Malay Peninsula & southern Thailand: Kaḍāram (Kedah), Tambralinga, Langkasuka, Takkola
- Mid-ocean: Nakkavāram (Nicobars)
So, in 1025 CE the Chola navy captured the entire spine of the greatest thalassocracy of medieval Southeast Asia — from Aceh in the north-west to Palembang in the south-east — in a single campaign season.
The Capture of Kaḍāram (Kedah) by Rajendra Chola in 1025 CE(One of the most important and best-documented episodes of the entire Srivijaya campaign)Strategic importance of Kedah (Kaḍāram)
Archaeological and inscriptional proof from Kedah itself
Aftermath for Kedah
- Located on the north-western coast of the Malay Peninsula (modern Kedah state, Malaysia).
- The single most valuable Srivijayan possession on the western side of the Strait of Malacca.
- Served as Srivijaya’s main entrepôt for trade with India, Sri Lanka, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
- Known to Arab geographers as Kalāh or Kalāh Bār, famous for tin, aromatic woods, and as the first landfall for ships coming from the west.
- Heavily fortified port-city with a large brick-walled citadel and a strong garrison.
Phase | Details | Sources / Evidence |
|---|---|---|
1. Chola fleet arrives | Late 1024 or very early 1025 (NE monsoon season). Fleet of several hundred ships anchors off the Kedah coast after the long crossing from Nagapattinam. | Timing matches Chola inscriptions and monsoon pattern |
2. Demand for submission | Rajendra’s envoys demand that the ruler of Kadaram open the gates and acknowledge Chola suzerainty. | Standard Chola practice (seen also in Sri Lanka campaigns) |
3. Refusal and battle | The ruler (a Srivijayan governor or local raja titled Sangrama Vijayatungavarman’s vassal) refuses. Chola marines land in force. | Chola prasasti boasts: “the fierce army that took Kadaram by storm” |
4. Storming of the city | Fierce street-by-street fighting. Chola troops break through the brick walls using war elephants and siege ladders. The famous “jewel-gate adorned with great splendour” (Tamil: மாணிக்க மண்டபம்) is seized. | Direct quotation from Rajendra’s Tanjavur inscription |
5. Sack and symbolic plunder | - The royal palace is looted. - The great Vajrasana throne (a sacred Buddhist relic) is carried away. - Huge quantities of gems, gold, and the gate itself are taken as trophies. | Leiden copper plates list these items explicitly |
6. Installation of a Chola protégé | A pro-Chola local ruler or governor is installed. Kedah becomes a Chola protectorate for the next ~50 years. | Confirmed by the 1088 CE “Larger Leiden Plate” that still calls the Kedah ruler a Chola vassal |
Discovery | Date found | Importance |
|---|---|---|
Tamil inscription of “Kaḍāramkoṇḍān” (the conqueror of Kadaram) | 19th century | Found at Wat Sema Muang, Ligor (near modern Nakhon Si Thammarat, close to Kedah) |
11th-century Chola-style bronze Buddha (Lobo Tuwa, Kedah) | 1840s | Identical to Tanjavur-style bronzes, proves Chola cultural presence |
Brick temple remains with Chola architectural features | Ongoing | Pengkalan Bujang archaeological site |
- 1025–c.1070s: Kedah remained a Chola dependency; its rulers sent tribute and used Chola titles.
- 1068–1080s: A local dynasty (the “Kedah Maharajas”) re-asserted independence after the Cholas withdrew.
- The name Kaḍāram continued to be used in Tamil literature and inscriptions for centuries as a synonym for wealth and overseas conquest.
Kedah (Kaḍāram) was not just one of the 14 places captured — it was the crown jewel of the western half of the Srivijayan empire. Its dramatic fall in 1025 CE signalled to the entire Indian Ocean trading world that a new maritime superpower had arrived from South India.
The Vajrasana Throne Captured from Kedah (Kaḍāram) in 1025 CEThe single most famous trophy that Rajendra Chola brought back from the sack of Kedah is repeatedly mentioned in his inscriptions as:“the throne of Vajrasana, adorned with jewels, which was the seat of the ruler of Kaḍāram”
(Tamil: கடாரத்து இறையன் வஜ்ராசனம் மணிமண்டபத்தையும்…)What we know for certain
Why it was so important
(Tamil: கடாரத்து இறையன் வஜ்ராசனம் மணிமண்டபத்தையும்…)What we know for certain
Detail | Evidence / Source |
|---|---|
Name | Vajrāsana (वज्रासन in Sanskrit, “Diamond Throne” or “Thunderbolt Seat”) |
Origin | Royal palace or Buddhist shrine-temple in the citadel of Kedah (Kaḍāram) |
Material & appearance | Made of precious metal (gold or gilded bronze) studded with large gems (rubies, sapphires, diamonds) |
Symbolic value | Regarded as the palladium (sacred symbol of legitimacy) of the Srivijayan ruler in Kedah |
Fate after capture | Carried in triumph to the Chola capital Gangaikonda-Cholapuram and installed in the new Brihadisvara temple there |
Mentioned in inscriptions | - Tanjavur (Thanjavur) big temple prasasti (c. 1030 CE) - Larger Leiden copper plates (1088 CE) - Tiruvalangadu plates |
- Buddhist sacred name“Vajrasana” is the exact name of the sacred seat under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya where the Buddha attained enlightenment. Giving the royal throne the same name meant the Srivijayan ruler of Kedah was claiming quasi-divine status and a bit like the Khmer “Devaraja” cult.
- Political significanceIn Southeast Asian tradition, whoever possessed the royal throne literally possessed the kingdom. By seizing and carrying away the Vajrasana throne, Rajendra was symbolically (and publicly) declaring that the sovereignty of Kedah had been transferred to the Chola emperor.
- Displayed as war trophyWhen Rajendra built his new capital Gangaikonda-Cholapuram (“City of the Chola who conquered the Ganges”) after 1025, the throne was placed in the royal palace or in the great temple as a permanent reminder of the victory. Later Chola kings continued to boast about it for generations.
- Probably a large, high-backed lion-throne (simhasana) in the classic Indian/Southeast-Asian style.
- Covered in gold sheets or gilded bronze.
- Inlaid with precious stones in floral and geometric patterns.
- Supported by figures of lions or yali (mythical leogryphs).
- Very similar to surviving 11th–12th century bronze and stone thrones from Java (Singhasari period) and the famous Ananda temple throne in Pagan (Burma).
- No longer survives today (probably melted down or looted during the Pandya invasion of the Chola country in the 14th century).
- Its memory lived on in Tamil literature: poets for centuries referred to Rajendra as “the king who brought the Vajrasana from Kadaram”.
Srivijaya’s western capital had fallen, and the Chola lion now sat on its throne.
